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Nato And Warsaw Pact Map

Written By Monday 31 October 2022 Add Comment Edit

International military alliance of Communist states

Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Help
Abbreviation WAPA, DDSV
Founded 14 May 1955 (1955-05-14)
Founded at Warsaw, Poland
Dissolved one July 1991 (1991-07-01)
Type Armed services alliance
Headquarters Moscow, Soviet Union

Membership

  • Republic of albania [a]
  • Bulgaria
  • Czechoslovakia
  • E Federal republic of germany [b]
  • Hungary
  • Poland
  • Romania [c]
  • Soviet Wedlock

Supreme commander
  • Ivan Konev (commencement)
  • Pyotr Lushev (last)

Main of combined staff
  • Aleksei Antonov (first)
  • Vladimir Lobov (last)
Affiliations Council for Mutual Economic Aid

The Warsaw Pact (WP)[3] or Treaty of Warsaw, formally the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Common Assistance,[4] was a commonage defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland, between the Soviet Union and seven other Eastern Bloc socialist republics of Cardinal and Eastern Europe in May 1955, during the Cold War. The term "Warsaw Pact" commonly refers to both the treaty itself and its resultant defensive alliance, the Warsaw Treaty Organization [5] (WTO). The Warsaw Pact was the armed services complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), the regional economical organization for the socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was created in reaction to the integration of Westward Germany into the North Atlantic Treaty System (NATO)[6] [7] [8] [9] in 1955 as per the London and Paris Conferences of 1954.[10] [eleven] [12] [xiii] [14]

Dominated past the Soviet Union, the Warsaw Pact was established as a remainder of power or counterweight to NATO.[fifteen] [sixteen] There was no direct war machine confrontation betwixt the two organizations; instead, the disharmonize was fought on an ideological footing and through proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of armed forces forces and their integration into the corresponding blocs.[16] Its largest armed forces engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 (with the participation of all pact nations except Albania and Romania),[fifteen] which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than ane month later. The pact began to unravel with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, start with the Solidarity movement in Poland,[17] its balloter success in June 1989 and the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989.[eighteen]

East Federal republic of germany withdrew from the pact post-obit German reunification in 1990. On 25 February 1991, at a meeting in Republic of hungary, the pact was declared at an terminate by the defense and foreign ministers of the half-dozen remaining member states. The USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although near of the one-time Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty System shortly thereafter. In the following 20 years, the Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO (East Deutschland through its reunification with W Germany; and the Czech republic and Slovakia as separate countries), as did the Baltic states which had been office of the Soviet Union.

History [edit]

Ancestry [edit]

Before the cosmos of the Warsaw Pact, the Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Frg and Poland.[thirteen] These states protested strongly confronting the re-militarization of W Germany.[19] The Warsaw Pact was put in place as a upshot of the rearming of West Frg inside NATO. Soviet leaders, similar many European leaders on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a armed forces power and a direct threat. The consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets and Eastern Europeans.[vii] [8] [20] [21] [22] Equally the Soviet Spousal relationship already had an armed presence and political domination all over its eastern satellite states, the pact has been long considered "superfluous",[23] and because of the rushed way in which information technology was conceived, NATO officials labeled it a "cardboard castle".[24]

The Fe Curtain (black line)

 Warsaw Pact countries

(The blackness dot represents West Berlin, an enclave aligned with West Deutschland. Albania withheld its support to the Warsaw Pact in 1961 due to the Soviet–Albanian split and formally withdrew in 1968.)

The USSR, fearing the restoration of German language militarism in West Federal republic of germany, had suggested in 1954 that it bring together NATO, just this was rejected by the U.s.a. and UK.[25] [26] [27]

The Soviet asking to bring together NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January–February 1954. Soviet strange minister Molotov fabricated proposals to take Deutschland reunified[28] and elections for a pan-German government,[29] under weather condition of withdrawal of the 4 powers' armies and German language neutrality,[30] but all were refused past the other foreign ministers, Dulles (U.s.), Eden (United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland), and Bidault (France).[31] Proposals for the reunification of Germany were nix new: earlier on xx March 1952, talks about a German language reunification, initiated by the then-called 'Stalin Note', concluded after the United Kingdom, France, and the United States insisted that a unified Germany should not be neutral and should be gratis to join the European Defense force Community (EDC) and rearm. James Dunn (USA), who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer, and Robert Schuman (France), affirmed that "the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians and to press on the European Defense force Community".[32] According to John Gaddis "there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer" from the USSR.[33] While historian Rolf Steininger asserts that Adenauer'due south conviction that "neutralization means sovietization" was the principal cistron in the rejection of the Soviet proposals,[34] Adenauer besides feared that German language unification might take resulted in the terminate of the CDU's leading political force in the West German Bundestag.[35]

Consequently, Molotov, fearing that the EDC would be directed in the futurity against the USSR and "seeking to prevent the germination of groups of European States directed against the other European States",[36] made a proposal for a General European Treaty on Collective Security in Europe "open up to all European States without regard to their social systems"[36] which would have included the unified Frg (thus rendering the EDC obsolete). But Eden, Dulles, and Bidault opposed the proposal.[37]

1 month later, the proposed European Treaty was rejected not only by supporters of the EDC but likewise past Western opponents of the European Defense Customs (like French Gaullist leader Gaston Palewski) who perceived information technology equally "unacceptable in its nowadays course because it excludes the USA from participation in the collective security system in Europe".[38] The Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the US, Great britain, and France to take the participation of the The states in the proposed Full general European Agreement.[38] Equally some other argument deployed against the Soviet proposal was that information technology was perceived by Western powers as "directed confronting the North Atlantic Pact and its liquidation",[38] [39] the Soviets decided to declare their "readiness to examine jointly with other interested parties the question of the participation of the USSR in the North Atlantic bloc", specifying that "the admittance of the USA into the Full general European Agreement should not be conditional on the three Western powers agreeing to the USSR joining the North Atlantic Pact".[38]

A "Soviet Big Seven" threats poster, displaying the equipment of the militaries of the Warsaw Pact

Over again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US, and French governments shortly after.[27] [40] Emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, a fierce supporter of NATO expansion. He opposed the asking to bring together NATO made by the USSR in 1954[41] saying that "the Soviet request to bring together NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force".[42]

In April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower, and Dulles. Ratification of the EDC was delayed but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that the EDC would have to get a role of NATO.[43]

Memories of the Nazi occupation were even so stiff, and the rearmament of Germany was feared past French republic too.[viii] [44] On 30 August 1954, the French Parliament rejected the EDC, thus ensuring its failure[45] and blocking a major objective of U.s. policy towards Europe: to associate Westward Federal republic of germany militarily with the West.[46] The US Section of State started to elaborate alternatives: West Germany would be invited to join NATO or, in the example of French obstructionism, strategies to circumvent a French veto would exist implemented in order to obtain German language rearmament outside NATO.[47]

A typical Soviet military jeep UAZ-469, used by most countries of the Warsaw Pact

On 23 Oct 1954 the admission of the Deutschland to the North Atlantic Pact was finally decided. The incorporation of Westward Federal republic of germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent" past Halvard Lange, Foreign Affairs Government minister of Kingdom of norway at the time.[48] In November 1954, the USSR requested a new European Security Treaty,[49] in guild to make a final endeavour to not have a remilitarized West Deutschland potentially opposed to the Soviet Union, with no success.

On fourteen May 1955, the USSR and seven other Eastern European countries "reaffirming their desire for the establishment of a system of European collective security based on the participation of all European states irrespective of their social and political systems"[50] established the Warsaw Pact in response to the integration of the Federal Democracy of Germany into NATO,[7] [9] declaring that: "a remilitarized Western Germany and the integration of the latter in the North-Atlantic bloc [...] increase the danger of some other war and constitutes a threat to the national security of the peaceable states; [...] in these circumstances the peaceable European states must have the necessary measures to safeguard their security".[50]

One of the founding members, East Frg, was immune to re-arm by the Soviet Union and the National People'southward Army was established equally the armed services of the country to counter the rearmament of Due west Federal republic of germany.[51]

Members [edit]

The founding signatories of the Pact consisted of the following communist governments:

Observers [edit]

Mongolia: In July 1963, the Mongolian People's Republic asked to bring together the Warsaw Pact under Article 9 of the treaty.[58] Due to the emerging Sino-Soviet separate, Mongolia remained in an observer status.[58] In what was the first instance of a Soviet initiative being blocked past a not-Soviet fellow member of the Warsaw Pact, Romania blocked Mongolia'due south accession to the Warsaw Pact.[59] [60] The Soviet authorities agreed to station troops in Mongolia in 1966.[61]

At commencement, China, North Korea, and Vietnam had observer status, merely China withdrew after the Sino-Soviet dissever in the early 1960s.[62]

During the Cold War [edit]

For 36 years, NATO and the Warsaw Pact never direct waged war against each other in Europe; the Usa and the Soviet Matrimony and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe, while working and fighting for influence within the wider Cold War on the international stage. These included the Korean War, Vietnam State of war, Bay of Pigs invasion, Muddied War, Cambodian–Vietnamese War, and others.[64] [65]

Protestation in Amsterdam against the nuclear arms race betwixt NATO and the Warsaw Pact, 1981

In 1956, following the declaration of the Imre Nagy government of the withdrawal of Republic of hungary from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops entered the country and removed the government.[66] Soviet forces crushed the nationwide revolt, leading to the expiry of an estimated 2,500 Hungarian citizens.[67]

The multi-national Communist armed forces' sole joint action was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in Baronial 1968.[68] All member countries, with the exception of the Socialist Republic of Romania and the People'southward Republic of Albania, participated in the invasion.[69] The German Democratic Republic provided only minimal support.[69]

Finish of the Cold War [edit]

In 1989, popular civil and political public discontent toppled the Communist governments of the Warsaw Treaty countries. The beginning of the end of the Warsaw Pact, regardless of military power, was the Pan-European Picnic in August 1989. The event, which goes dorsum to an idea by Otto von Habsburg, caused the mass exodus of GDR citizens and the media-informed population of Eastern Europe felt the loss of power of their rulers and the Atomic number 26 Pall broke downward completely. Though Poland'southward new Solidarity regime under Lech Wałęsa initially bodacious the Soviets that information technology would remain in the Pact,[seventy] this broke the brackets of Eastern Europe, which could no longer be held together militarily by the Warsaw Pact.[71] [72] [73] Independent national politics made feasible with the perestroika and liberal glasnost policies revealed shortcomings and failures (i.e. of the soviet-type economic planning model) and have induced institutional collapse of the Communist regime in the USSR in 1991.[74] [ improve source needed ] From 1989 to 1991, Communist governments were overthrown in Albania, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Eastward Germany, Romania, Republic of bulgaria, Yugoslavia, and the Soviet Spousal relationship.

Equally the last acts of the Cold War were playing out, several Warsaw Pact states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary) participated in the US-led coalition attempt to liberate Kuwait in the Gulf War.

On 25 February 1991, the Warsaw Pact was declared disbanded at a meeting of defence and strange ministers from remaining Pact countries meeting in Hungary.[75] On one July 1991, in Prague, the Czechoslovak President Václav Havel[76] formally ended the 1955 Warsaw Treaty Arrangement of Friendship, Cooperation and Common Assistance and so disestablished the Warsaw Treaty later on 36 years of military alliance with the USSR.[76] [77] The USSR disestablished itself in December 1991.

Structure [edit]

The Warsaw Treaty'southward organisation was two-fold: the Political Consultative Commission handled political matters, and the Combined Command of Pact Armed services controlled the assigned multi-national forces, with headquarters in Warsaw, Poland.

Although an apparently similar collective security brotherhood, the Warsaw Pact differed essentially from NATO. De jure, the 8-member countries of the Warsaw Pact pledged the mutual defense of any fellow member who would be attacked; relations among the treaty signatories were based upon mutual non-intervention in the internal diplomacy of the member countries, respect for national sovereignty, and political independence.[78]

Withal, de facto, the Pact was a direct reflection of the USSR's authoritarianism and undisputed domination over the Eastern Bloc, in the context of the then called Soviet Empire, which was not comparable to that of the United States over the Western Bloc.[79] All Warsaw Pact commanders had to be, and have been, senior officers of the Soviet Union at the same time and appointed for an unspecified term length: the Supreme Commander of the Unified Armed services of the Warsaw Treaty Arrangement, which commanded and controlled all the military forces of the member countries, was likewise a Showtime Deputy Minister of Defence of the USSR, and the Primary of Combined Staff of the Unified Armed forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization was besides a Beginning Deputy Chief of the Full general Staff of the Soviet Military machine.[80] On the reverse, the Secretary General of NATO and Chair of the NATO Military Commission are positions with stock-still term of office held on a random rotating ground by officials from all member countries through consensus.

Despite the American hegemony (mainly armed services and economic) over NATO, all decisions of the N Atlantic Alliance required unanimous consensus in the North Atlantic Council and the entry of countries into the brotherhood was not bailiwick to domination but rather a natural democratic process.[79] In the Warsaw Pact, decisions were ultimately taken by the Soviet Union alone; the countries of the Warsaw Pact were not equally able to negotiate their entry in the Pact nor the decisions taken.[79]

Romania and Albania [edit]

The Warsaw Pact before its 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia, showing the Soviet Matrimony and its satellites (ruby) and the two independent non-Soviet members: Romania and Republic of albania (pinkish)

Romania and until 1968, Republic of albania - were exceptions. Together with Yugoslavia, which bankrupt with the Soviet Matrimony before the Warsaw Pact was created, these three countries completely rejected the Soviet doctrine formulated for the Pact. Republic of albania officially left the system in 1968, in protestation of its invasion of Czechoslovakia. Romania had its own reasons for remaining a formal member of the Warsaw Pact, such as Nicolae Ceaușescu'south interest of preserving the threat of a Pact invasion so he could sell himself as a nationalist as well as privileged access to NATO counterparts and a seat at diverse European forums which otherwise he would not accept had (for example, Romania and the Soviet-led remainder of the Warsaw Pact formed two distinct groups in the elaboration of the Helsinki Last Human activity.[81]). When Andrei Grechko assumed command of the Warsaw Pact, both Romania and Albania had for all practical purposes defected from the Pact. In the early on 1960s, Grechko initiated programs meant to preempt Romanian doctrinal heresies from spreading to other Pact members. Romania's doctrine of territorial defense threatened the Pact'southward unity and cohesion. No other land succeeded in escaping from the Warsaw Pact similar Romania and Albania did. For instance, the mainstays of Romania's tank forces were locally-developed models. Soviet troops were deployed to Romania for the last fourth dimension in 1963, as part of a Warsaw Pact practice. After 1964, the Red Regular army was barred from returning to Romania, as the country refused to have part in joint Pact exercises.[82]

A Romanian TR-85 tank in December 1989 (Romania'south TR-85 and TR-580 tanks were the only non-Soviet tanks in the Warsaw Pact on which restrictions were placed under the 1990 CFE Treaty[83])

Even earlier the advent of Nicolae Ceaușescu, Romania was in fact an independent country, as opposed to the rest of the Warsaw Pact. To some extent, it was even more contained than Cuba (a Communist state that was not a member of the Warsaw Pact).[1] The Romanian government was largely impervious to Soviet political influence, and Ceaușescu was the only alleged opponent of glasnost and perestroika. On account of the contentious relationship betwixt Bucharest and Moscow, the Due west did non hold the Soviet Union responsible for the policies pursued by Bucharest. This was non the case for the other countries in the region, such as Czechoslovakia and Poland.[84] At the start of 1990, the Soviet foreign government minister, Eduard Shevardnadze, implicitly confirmed the lack of Soviet influence over Ceaușescu's Romania. When asked whether it fabricated sense for him to visit Romania less than two weeks after its revolution, Shevardnadze insisted that merely past going in person to Romania could he figure out how to "restore Soviet influence".[85]

Romania requested and obtained the complete withdrawal of the Red Ground forces from its territory in 1958. The Romanian campaign for independence culminated on 22 April 1964 when the Romanian Communist Party issued a announcement proclaiming that: "Every Marxist-Leninist Party has a sovereign correct...to elaborate, cull or change the forms and methods of socialist construction." and "There exists no "parent" political party and "offspring" party, no "superior" and "subordinated" parties, but only the large family of communist and workers' parties having equal rights." and also "there are not and there can be no unique patterns and recipes". This amounted to a declaration of political and ideological independence from Moscow.[86] [87] [88] [89]

The Romanian IAR-93 Vultur was the simply combat jet designed and built by a non-Soviet member of the Warsaw Pact.[xc]

Post-obit Albania'due south withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, Romania remained the only Pact member with an independent war machine doctrine which denied the Soviet Union use of its armed forces and avoided absolute dependence on Soviet sources of military equipment.[91] Romania were the just non-Soviet Warsaw Pact fellow member which was non obliged to militarily defend the Soviet Wedlock in example of an armed attack.[92] Bulgaria and Romania were the only Warsaw Pact members that did not have Soviet troops stationed on their soil.[93] In December 1964, Romania became the only Warsaw Pact fellow member (save Republic of albania, which would leave the Pact altogether within 4 years) from which all Soviet advisors were withdrawn, including those in the intelligence and security services.[94] Non only did Romania not participate in joint operations with the KGB, just it also set "departments specialized in anti-KGB counterespionage".[95]

Romania was neutral in the Sino-Soviet dissever.[96] [97] [98] Its neutrality in the Sino-Soviet dispute along with being the small Communist state with the almost influence in global affairs enabled Romania to be recognized by the earth as the "3rd force" of the Communist world. Romania's independence - achieved in the early 1960s through its freeing from its Soviet satellite status - was tolerated by Moscow because Romania was not bordering the Iron Curtain - being surrounded by socialist states - and considering its ruling party was not going to abandon Communism.[ii] [99] [100]

Although certain historians such as Robert Male monarch and Dennis Deletant argue against the usage of the term "independent" to draw Romania'due south relations with the Soviet Union, favoring "autonomy" instead on account of the country's continued membership within both the Comecon and the Warsaw Pact along with its commitment to Socialism, this approach fails to explain why Romania blocked in July 1963 Mongolia's accession to the Warsaw Pact, why in November 1963 Romania voted in favor of a UN resolution to found a nuclear-free zone in Latin America when the other Socialist countries abstained, or why in 1964 Romania opposed the Soviet-proposed "stiff collective riposte" against China (and these are examples solely from the 1963-1964 period).[101] Soviet disinformation tried to convince the Due west that Ceaușescu's empowerment was a dissimulation in connivance with Moscow.[102] To an extent this worked, as some historians came to see the hand of Moscow behind every Romanian initiative. For instance, when Romania became the only Eastern European country to maintain diplomatic relations with State of israel, some historians have speculated that this was at Moscow's whim. Notwithstanding, this theory fails upon closer inspection.[103] Fifty-fifty during the Cold War, some thought that Romanian actions were done at the behest of the Soviets, merely Soviet anger at said actions was "persuasively 18-carat". In truth, the Soviets were not beyond publicly adjustment themselves with the Westward against the Romanians at times.[104]

Strategy [edit]

The strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to foreclose Central and Eastern Europe being used as a base for its enemies. Its policy was also driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the correct to define socialism and communism and deed as the leader of the global socialist movement. A corollary to this was the necessity of intervention if a country appeared to exist violating core socialist ideas, explicitly stated in the Brezhnev Doctrine.[105]

Notable military machine exercises [edit]

External video
video icon Czechoslovak Military machine Parade "Shield-84" - Vojenská přehlídka ČSLA "Štít-84
  • "Szczecin" (Poland, 1962)
  • "Vltava" (Czechoslovakia, 1966)
  • Operation "Rhodope" (Bulgaria, 1967)
  • "Oder-Neisse" (East Germany, 1969)
  • Przyjaźń 84 (Poland, 1984)
  • Shield 84' (Czechoslovakia, 1984)[106]

NATO and Warsaw Pact: comparison of the ii forces [edit]

NATO and Warsaw Pact forces in Europe [edit]

Information published by the two alliances (1988-1989)[107]
NATO estimates Warsaw Pact

estimates

Type NATO Warsaw Pact NATO Warsaw Pact
Personnel 2,213,593 3,090,000 three,660,200 3,573,100
Combat aircraft 3,977 eight,250 seven,130 7,876
Full strike aircraft NA NA 4,075 2,783
Helicopters two,419 iii,700 5,720 ii,785
Tactical missile launchers NA NA 136 1,608
Tanks xvi,424 51,500 thirty,690 59,470
Anti-tank weapons 18,240 44,200 eighteen,070 eleven,465
Armored infantry fighting vehicles iv,153 22,400 46,900 70,330
Artillery 14,458 43,400 57,060 71,560
Other armored vehicles 35,351 71,000
Armored vehicle launch bridges 454 2,550
Air defense systems 10,309 24,400
Submarines 200 228
Submarines-nuclear powered 76 80
Large surface ships 499 102
Aircraft-conveying ships 15 2
Aircraft-carrying ships armed with cruise missiles 274 23
Amphibious warfare ships 84 24

Post-Warsaw Pact [edit]

Expansion of NATO before and after the collapse of communism throughout Central and Eastern Europe

On 12 March 1999, the Czechia, Hungary, and Poland joined NATO; Bulgaria, Republic of estonia, Republic of latvia, Lithuania, Romania, and Slovakia joined in March 2004; Albania joined on 1 April 2009.[108] [109]

Russia and another post-USSR states joined the Commonage Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) in 1992, or the Shanghai Five in 1996, which was renamed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) after Uzbekistan's addition in 2001.[ citation needed ]

In November 2005, the Shine government opened its Warsaw Treaty athenaeum to the Institute of National Remembrance, which published some one,300 declassified documents in January 2006, yet the Smoothen government reserved publication of 100 documents, pending their armed forces declassification. Eventually, thirty of the reserved 100 documents were published; 70 remained underground and unpublished. Among the documents published was the Warsaw Treaty'south nuclear war plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine – a curt, swift invasion and capture of Austria, Kingdom of denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands e of the Rhine, using nuclear weapons after a supposed NATO first strike.[110] [111]

See also [edit]

  • Finno-Soviet Treaty of 1948 – treaty that defined Finland's level of neutrality towards Soviet Union
  • Treaty of friendship – any treaty establishing close ties betwixt countries
  • Russosphere
  • Eastern Bloc
  • Soviet Empire

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Withheld support in 1961 due to the Soviet–Albanian separate, just formally withdrew in 1968.
  2. ^ Formally withdrew in September 1990.
  3. ^ The but independent permanent non-Soviet member of the Warsaw Pact, having freed itself from its Soviet satellite status by the early 1960s.[one] [2]

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b c Tismaneanu, Vladimir; Stan, Marius (17 May 2018). Vladimir Tismaneanu, Marius Stan, Cambridge University Press, 17 May, 2018, Romania Confronts Its Communist Past: Democracy, Retention, and Moral Justice, p. 132. ISBN9781107025929.
  2. ^ a b c Cook, Bernard A.; Cook, Bernard Anthony (2001). Bernard A. Melt, Bernard Anthony Cook, Taylor & Francis, 2001, Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia, Volume ii, p. 1075. ISBN9780815340584.
  3. ^ "Introduction". www.php.isn.ethz.ch.
  4. ^ "Text of Warsaw Pact" (PDF). Un Treaty Collection. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2013. Retrieved 22 Baronial 2013.
  5. ^ "Milestones: 1953–1960 - Office of the Historian". history.land.gov.
  6. ^ Yost, David S. (1998). NATO Transformed: The Alliance'south New Roles in International Security. Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace Printing. p. 31. ISBN1-878379-81-X.
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  8. ^ a b c "The Warsaw Pact is formed". History Channel. Archived from the original on 23 December 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2015.
  9. ^ a b "In reaction to West Germany's NATO accretion, the Soviet Union and its Eastern European client states formed the Warsaw Pact in 1955." Citation from: NATO website. "A brusk history of NATO". nato.int. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
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  11. ^ Christopher Cook, Dictionary of Historical Terms (1983)
  12. ^ The Columbia Enclopedia, 5th edition (1993) p. 2926
  13. ^ a b The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969 Laurien Crump Routledge, p. 21–22, 11 February 2015
  14. ^ The Oder-Neisse Line: The United States, Poland, and Federal republic of germany in the Cold War Debra J. Allen page 158 "Treaties approving Bonn's participation in NATO were ratified in May 1955...shortly thereafter Soviet Union...created the Warsaw Pact to counter the perceived threat of NATO"
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  19. ^ Europa Antoni Czubiński Wydawn. Poznańskie, 1998, p. 298
  20. ^ Globe Politics: The Menu for Option page 87 Bruce Russett, Harvey Starr, David Kinsella – 2009 The Warsaw Pact was established in 1955 as a response to West Germany's entry into NATO; German language militarism was still a recent memory among the Soviets and Due east Europeans.
  21. ^ "When the Federal Commonwealth of Germany entered NATO in early on May 1955, the Soviets feared the consequences of a strengthened NATO and a rearmed W Deutschland". Citation from:Us Department of Land, Office of the Historian. "The Warsaw Treaty Organization, 1955". Function of the Historian. history.country.gov. Archived from the original on 28 November 2015. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
  22. ^ "1955: After objecting to Germany's access into NATO, the Soviet Union joins Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Frg, Hungary, Poland and Romania in forming the Warsaw Pact.". See chronology in:"Fast facts virtually NATO". CBC News. vi April 2009. Archived from the original on four May 2012. Retrieved sixteen July 2011.
  23. ^ The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969 Laurien Crump Routledge, pp. 17, 11 Feb 2015
  24. ^ The Warsaw Pact Reconsidered: International Relations in Eastern Europe, 1955–1969 Laurien Crump Routledge, p. 1, xi Feb 2015
  25. ^ "Soviet Union request to join NATO" (PDF). Nato.int. Archived (PDF) from the original on xi March 2012. Retrieved 31 July 2013.
  26. ^ "1954: Soviet Union suggests information technology should join NATO to preserve peace in Europe. U.Due south. and U.K. reject this". Run into chronology in:"Fast facts about NATO". CBC News. 6 Apr 2009. Archived from the original on iv May 2012. Retrieved xvi July 2011.
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  29. ^ Molotov 1954a, p. 202.
  30. ^ Molotov 1954a, pp. 197–198, 203, 212.
  31. ^ Molotov 1954a, pp. 211–212, 216.
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  35. ^ Steininger, Rolf (1991). The German Question: The Stalin Note of 1952 and the Problem of Reunification. Columbia Univ Press. p. 103.
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  37. ^ Molotov 1954a, p. 214.
  38. ^ a b c d "MOLOTOV'South PROPOSAL THAT THE USSR Join NATO, MARCH 1954". Wilson Heart. Archived from the original on 2 February 2014. Retrieved one August 2013.
  39. ^ Molotov 1954a, p. 216,.
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Works cited [edit]

  • Adenauer, Konrad (1966a). Memorie 1945–1953 (in Italian). Arnoldo Mondadori Editore. Archived from the original on 1 Baronial 2013.
  • Molotov, Vyacheslav (1954a). La conferenza di Berlino (in Italian). Ed. di cultura sociale.
  • Public Domain This article incorporates public domain material from the Library of Congress Country Studies.

Farther reading [edit]

  • Faringdon, Hugh. Confrontation: the strategic geography of NATO and the Warsaw Pact. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986.)
  • Heuser, Beatrice (1998). "Victory in a Nuclear War? A Comparison of NATO and WTO War Aims and Strategies". Contemporary European History. 7 (three): 311–327. doi:10.1017/S0960777300004264. S2CID 159502812.
  • Mackintosh, Malcolm. The evolution of the Warsaw Pact (International Plant for Strategic Studies, 1969)
  • Kramer, Mark N. "Civil-military relations in the Warsaw Pact, The E European component," International Affairs, Vol. 61, No. 1, Wintertime 1984–85.
  • Lewis, William Julian (1982). The Warsaw Pact: Arms, Doctrine, and Strategy. Cambridge, Mass.: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis. ISBN978-0-07-031746-viii.
  • Mastny, Vojtech; Byrne, Malcolm (2005). A Cardboard Castle ?: An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact, 1955–1991. Budapest: Key European Academy Press. ISBN978-963-7326-07-3.
  • A. James McAdams, "Due east Frg and Detente." Cambridge Academy Press, 1985.
  • McAdams, A. James. "Germany Divided: From the Wall to Reunification." Princeton University Printing, 1992 and 1993.

Other languages [edit]

  • Umbach, Frank (2005). Das rote Bündnis: Entwicklung und Zerfall des Warschauer Paktes 1955 bis 1991 (in German language). Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag. ISBN978-3-86153-362-vii.
  • Wahl, Alfred (2007). La seconda vita del nazismo nella Germania del dopoguerra (in Italian). Torino: Lindau. ISBN978-88-7180-662-4. – Original Ed.: Wahl, Alfred (2006). La seconde histoire du nazisme dans fifty'Allemagne fédérale depuis 1945 (in French). Paris: Armand Colin. ISBN2-200-26844-0.

Memoirs [edit]

  • Adenauer, Konrad (1966b). Konrad Adenauer Memoirs 1945–53 . Henry Regnery Company.
  • Molotov, Vyacheslav (1954b). Statements at Berlin Conference of Foreign Ministers of U.s.S.R., French republic, Keen Britain and UsA., Jan 25 – February xviii, 1954. Foreign Languages Publishing House.

External links [edit]

  • "What was the Warsaw Pact?". North Atlantic Treaty Organisation.
  • The Woodrow Wilson Heart Cold State of war International History Project'due south Warsaw Pact Certificate Collection
  • Parallel History Project on Cooperative Security
  • Library of Congress / Federal Enquiry Division / State Studies / Area Handbook Series / Soviet Wedlock / Appendix C: The Warsaw Pact (1989)
  • Map of Russia and the Warsaw Pact (omniatlas.com)
  • Soviet Nuclear Weapons in Hungary 1961-1991
  • The Warsaw Pact, 1955–1968. by Hugh Collins Embry. Contain extensive documentation of the Pacts first 13 years.

Nato And Warsaw Pact Map,

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact

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